Following the FAO definition, this review includes all CSA practices and technologies that aim at increasing sustainable productivity and income, building resilience and adaptation to climate changes and reducing GHG emissions. Crop, livestock and integrated farming systems are included. On top of the three pillars of FAO CSA outcomes, this review suggested improvement in biodiversity and animal welfare and irrigation water and energy use efficiency are additional outcome to be considered in the context and EU Green deal targets.
A total of 74 CSA practices and technologies were identified this review with the size of the text signalling the number of times that the practice or technology was mentioned in the reviewed papers.
Crop-based CSA.
As the identified CSA practices and technologies are dispersed; this review grouped them in 7 categories based their primary production type application and their CSA outcome contribution. For categorization, this review considered practices and technologies that are mentioned in at least three final selected paper.
Climate-smart agroecological farming practices.
Beatles CSA review found that cover cropping, crop rotation, and integrated soil fertility management, on average have a positive effect on productivity whereas the productivity gain from intercropping are not clear and productivity gains from no-till were neutral. The majority of the reviewed agro-ecological farming practices have positive effects on resilience/adaptation and mitigation. Regarding biodiversity improvement, cover cropping intercropping, crop rotation, and crop diversification have positive effects. Cover crops and no-till have a positive effect on water use efficiency.
Climate-smart fertilization
The review shows that precision fertilization, biofertilizers, variable rate fertilization and smart fertigation on average have a positive effect on productivity, while organic fertilizers and compost have a neutral effect. Regarding resilience and adaptation effects, four practices have a positive effect, while two have a neutral and unclear effect. Three practices, namely biofertilizers, organic fertilizers, and micromeres, have a positive effect on biodiversity improvement. Under this category, only smart fertigation has a positive effect on water use efficiency, while variable rate fertilization and smart fertigation have a positive effect on energy use efficiency.
Climate smart crop protection
This review indicates that integrated pest management, precision pest management, and precision chemical weeding with a variable rate of spray have positive effects on productivity, resilience, and mitigation. While mechanical weeding and biological control have positive effects on resilience, mitigation, and biodiversity improvement. Integrated weed management and smart greenhouses have positive effects on productivity and resilience. IoT-based farm management zones have a positive effect on mitigation and biodiversity, while smart green houses have a positive effect on water and energy efficiency.
Climate smart irrigation management
The practices and technologies in this category have positive effects on both productivity and resilience. They also have a positive effect on water and energy use efficiency. Regarding mitigation outcome, precision irrigation, IoT based irrigation and variable rate of irrigation have positive effect on the mitigation outcome of CSA. This indicates that smart farming technologies (SFTs) help to determine more precisely its actual location and its status of moisture.
Livestock-based CSA
As livestock production is a main contributor to GHG emissions by its enteric fermentation in ruminants’ digestive systems, feed production and manure management needs CSA practices and technologies to reduce its negative effect and animal welfare. Beatles systematic review identified livestock-based farming practices and technologies. The animal husbandry and manure management category have positive effects on outcomes for mitigation and animal welfare. Manure management whether for composting or biogas has positive effect on resilience, mitigation, biodiversity, and animal welfare, but neutral effect on energy use efficiency. Precision livestock technologies and holistic livestock management have positive effect on productivity, resilience and adaptation, mitigation, animal welfare and energy use efficiencies. House improvement with ventilation and enough space has also positive effect on livestock productivity, mitigation, energy use efficiency and animal welfare. Regarding health improvement we found a positive effect on the practices on productivity, resilience, adaptation, and animal welfare.
Manure management and animal husbandry
Climate smart livestock feed management
Livestock not only contribute to GHG emissions, but it also supports emissions reduction efforts by its grassland restoration that have effect on soil carbon stocks. Green feeding like clover, alfalfa, and grasses has positive effect on livestock resilience and reducing GHG emissions. Feeding legumes as protein source also has a positive influence on productivity, resilience, mitigation, and biodiversity improvement. The review result shows that improved forage production like alfalfa and soybeans has a positive effect on the productivity of livestock and their resilience and adaptation to climate change by fixing nitrogen. Use of permanent pasture and pasture grazing have positive effect on productivity, resilience and mitigation and animal welfare. This review also found that the positive effect grassland lay rotation on resilience, mitigation, and biodiversity improvement. Feeding legumes on the other hand have huge potential on top of feeding livestock to reduce emissions from fertilizer use and improve soil fertility by improving feed quality. Feed additives like barley, oats, and legumes had a positive effect on productivity, resistance, and mitigation of climate change.
CSA for both crop and livestock
This review found that organic agriculture has positive effect on resilience, adaptation, mitigation, biodiversity, water use efficiency and animal welfare with a negative effect on productivity. We also found that there is a difference in productivity in organic farming depending on the farming type and agroecological context. This review found that the gap is even lower for some organic farming even it would be higher for legume-based crop rotation and under severe drought conditions. This review also found that mixed farming, diversification and integrated livestock farming have positive effect on productivity, resilience, adaption, and mitigation. While integrated crop livestock farming has positive effect on energy use efficiency and animal welfare.
Based on this review, Beatles recommend that legume-based crop rotation, intercropping and cover cropping are key solutions to increase carbon sequestration, symbiotic nitrogen fixation, water infiltration and biodiversity in soil fauna and microbial communities without harming productivity. On the other hand as smart farming technologies plays a greater role by its contribution towards CSA outcomes, more emphasis should be given to more diffusion and adoption of the technologies. Green feed production and feed additives including grass and legumes, feeding legumes, reintroducing multispecies leys, and livestock grazing with arable rotations are suggested practices by this review for climate smart livestock. Manure management with holistic husbandry is suggested practices as livestock CSA by this review. As it prioritizes environmental sustainability, biodiversity, and animal welfare while minimizing GHG emissions during the production process, this review also suggested diffusions and adoption of organic farming as climate smart agriculture.
